An example of student created "art" in Word utilizing the tutorials via @GCFLearnFree #edtech #techblog #FF #edchat pic.twitter.com/bSWXkQfwIw — ICTPHMS (@ICTPHMS) September 12, 2014

What is Instructional Design (ID)? I am sure that all of us in the learning business have heard about it…technical writers and instructional designers and content developers, and so on. But what exactly is ID? In simple terms, ID is creating or developing content that suits the learning need of a particular group of people. Now, this content can be text, graphics, or anything in between and this group of people can be sales personnel, students, high tech computer junkies, or any person with a quest to learn something new or old. During the course of this article and the articles that I hope to write in the future, I shall touch upon and explain what ID is and what are the tricks of this trade. It is like any other profession - you need to strive for perfection. Indeed, perfection is never achieved and is overstated but still, we can try.I’ll roadmap the course of this journey with you. First, we will see the various learning theories/models that have been put forward. Then, we will see how these theories actually fit into ID. Why I say this? It is because many articles and papers that I have seen provide an excellent overview of these theories/models but then stop there. How are these learning theories that have been given by people as early as 1800’s important to creating or developing text/graphics to us? The Learning TheoriesHow does Pavlov (1849-1936) and his dog ( ah! Man’s best friend) fit into Instructional Design? What did Pavlov discover that changed the behavior of instructional designers or simply, behavior of people developing some stuff that was used by other people as a means of learning. What did researchers such as Thorndike(1874 - 1949), Watson(1878 - 1958), and Skinner(1904 - 1990) find that changed the perception of learning in humans? All this and more is what will be the focus of this article. To begin with, I will start off by describing Behaviorism, one of the earliest learning theories. Then, I will move on to other learning theories.

Behavior in simple terms is the visible attitude of a person. A good behavior is often rewarded whereas a bad behavior is often punished. It seems that "behavior" of a person, or from an ID perspective - learner, can be modified by providing certain conditions and then waiting for the learners' reaction to that condition. The condition that you provide to a learner is called stimulus and the response you expect from the learner is called response. Therefore, behaviorist theories provide a stimulus to the learner and expect responses based on them. The earliest works on behaviorism was done by Pavlov. He was a Russian physiologist who worked with a dog and a bell (you would expect a bone instead)! He helped establish some basic fundamentals on which behaviorism was founded. Pavlov provided stimulus to the dog and then obtained a response from the dog. The pairing of stimulus applied and responses obtained was called classical conditioning. To begin this stimulus-response journey, Pavlov presented the dog, a.k.a. the learner with food, which was called an unconditioned stimulus. Obviously the dog responded by salivating, which was called an unconditioned response (like my response if a chocolate fudge sundae is placed in front of me). The dog's reaction was natural or unconditioned. Mr. Pavlov decided to make things more interesting. Whenever he placed food in front of the dog, he rang a bell. The association between the food and the bell was called conditioned stimulus, as the dog was being conditioned to provide an adequate response to the food-bell combo (does it remind you of the smell of french fries and remembering McDonald simultaneously..). Yes, ringing of the bell was a conditioned stimulus, which caused the dog to salivate that was an unconditioned response.Now, Pavlov moved a step forward and decided to ring the bell alone without presenting any food to the dog. This conditioned stimulus was part of the food-bell combo that provided the expected response - salivation, which was now called the conditioned response. This was because the dog, a.k.a. the learner had learned to associate the bell with food (conditioned stimulus) and then salivate (conditioned response).There were some other interesting observations that were made by Pavlov. The most obvious was generalization of stimulus. This meant that if the dog was presented with sounds similar to the sound of the bell (conditioned stimulus), the dog would salivate (conditioned response). However, if the dog was presented with different sounds but only some of them were associated with presentation of food, the dog learned to discriminate among the sounds and salivate only when the stimulus included the sound that was presented with the food. Another interesting observation was that of extinction of stimulus and the response the dog gave. When the bell was no longer paired with the food - a modification in the stimulus, the dog's response to this stimulus was also modified and the dog stopped salivating at the sound of the bell. Again, for a period of time, if the bell was paired with food again, the dog would "relearn" to salivate, an observation called spontaneous recovery.This extinction of stimulus meant that if the stimulus changed, the behavior of the learner would also change in terms of the response given. Applied to learning designs, if a learner is presented with a different type of stimulus, the responses will vary. For example, there are Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner, 1983) in people. The multiple intelligence concept means that there are various levels of intelligence in learners, such as visual/spatial, verbal/linguistic, logical/mathematical, bodily/kinesthetic, musical/rhythmic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Every intelligence level presents the learner with a different "stimulus", therefore the responses for each learner are different that determine the learners' personal intelligence type. For example, some learners respond to a "visual stimulus" and are good with remembering faces more than a "verbal stimulus" or remembering names, and therefore, will have the intelligence type as "visual or spatial". Let's take another example - IQ tests. If you have ever taken an IQ test, (which I am sure most of us have), I might perform well in some questions, such as what comes next in a pictorial sequence while faring badly when it comes to calculating the speed of trains that are traveling in opposite directions simultaneously. It does not mean that I am not intelligent (I tend to see the positive side of things), but means that I give the correct responses when I am presented with a particular type of stimulus, in this case a pictorial one. My behavior is modified, that translates to a good IQ score only if the questions are all made up of pictures. If I am presented with questions that involve mathematics (a different stimulus), I will not be happy with my IQ scores (a different response).Coming back to our faithful dog, Pavlov also determined a condition where if the dog with presented with another unconditioned stimulus, such as flashing on a light along with a conditioned stimulus, such as ringing of the bell and associating this with food, after a period of time the dog would salivate in response to the flashing of the light alone. This was called higher order conditioning. In other words, after a stimulus-response behavior has been established, the stimulus can be paired with external conditions and the same response can be obtained by removing the original stimulus and presenting the external conditions alone. This classical conditioning of the dog by Pavlov established some of the concepts of behaviorism. Applied to learning behaviors among people, if you present a learner with a particular stimulus so as to condition the learner, the outcome will be a response that leads to a change in behavior of the learner.

Edward Lee Thorndike(1874-1949) based all his assumptions and formulated his theories based on creating a connection between two variables - stimulus and response (S-R). He encapsulated this entire concept and called it connectionism. These stimulus and response variables were likely to change and the learner would learn by forging strong or weak bonds, also called connections between these two variables. The strengthening of connections between stimulus and responses were because of positive or satisfying outcomes while weakening of these S-R connections were because of negative or discomforting outcomes.Thorndike formulated three laws based on these assumptions: law of readiness, law of effect, and law of exercise. Lets take an example of a group of kids learning about colors. First of all, the teacher will have to create an enthusiastic atmosphere, so that the kids really wants to learn the concept of colors. The teacher is responsible for making the kids ready to learn the concept of multiple colors. In simple terms, even before a S-R bond is established, the learner needs to be in a ready state of mind. Thorndike postulated a law based on this observation and called it law of readiness. Law of readiness states that if a learner is ready to perform an act, the outcome will be positive and the learner will be satisfied. However, if a learner is not ready to perform the act, the learner will be annoyed and frustrated. This is because the learner faces an impediment towards the goal of being in a "ready to perform" state and therefore, will be frustrated and annoyed.Moving on with our example, after the teacher has created the amicable atmosphere for the group of kids to learn about colors, the kids will need to see a color and associate it with a name, such as red or yellow. In other words, they will receive a stimulus, in this case will be shown a color, and they will have to provide a response, in this case by naming the color. More the kids are able to create an association between stimulus (color) and response (naming it), the teacher is able to strengthen this bond by rewarding them with candies (I wish I had a teacher who gave out candies.. ). However, if the kids are unable to associate the color with a name, the teacher can show the color again and again, till the kids have learned to associate the correct color (stimulus) with the name (response). More a learner associates the S-R connection with a positive outcome or satisfying outcome (candies in this case), the S-R connection will strengthen and the learners are motivated to provide the correct response. In case the response has a discomforting outcome (boredom) associated with the stimulus, the S-R connection will weaken over a period of time. Therefore, strength of the bond between stimulus and response could be manipulated by the learner. This leads us to the second law given by Thorndike - law of effect.Law of effect states that the association between a stimulus and response will strengthen or weaken depending on whether a satisfier or an annoyer follows the response (Gibson, 1980). The higher the degree of satisfaction or annoyance associated after response is given to a provided stimulus, the stronger or weaker the bond will become respectively. Learning will be possible if the S-R connection is established and the S-R bond is strong.The next law, law of exercise, seems to be an outcome of the law of readiness and law of effect. Law of exercise implies that over a period of time, the strength of the bond that is made between a stimulus and a response depends on the frequency and duration for which this S-R bond has been established. In other words, if you keep on repeating a particular response for a particular stimulus, you are more likely to provide this same response whenever this stimulus is presented to you. For example, students are often asked to practice a lot of numerical questions in physics as this will help them solve the numerical questions that come in the exam. In a way, practice makes perfect. So more you practice, more likely you are to succeed in providing a particular response. Therefore, the connection between a stimulus and response is dependent on the number of times this bond is practiced or used. Disuse of this connection will cause weakening of the bond. However, Thorndike realized that these laws were not absolute. There were other external variables or global forces that came into play wherever a S-R bond or connection establishment was concerned. So he postulated some subsidiary laws (Curzon, 1981):Law of Set or Attitude: This law implies that a learner’s prior disposition or behavior affects the outcome of a learning process. If a learner is ready, the outcome will be different than when a learner is forced to learn. Law of Multiple Responses: If the learner has the correct attitude for learning, for any given stimulus, the learner will keep on providing multiple responses until he or she has achieved a satisfaction level that will strengthen this S-R bond. The connection established between a stimulus and response will cause learning to occur.Law of Associative Shifting: A learner is able to "transfer" his or her responses to another stimulus that is presented with the original stimulus (remember Pavlov’s pairing of the presentation of food (original stimulus) and sound of a bell (new stimulus) that led to salivating (desired response)).Law of Response Analogy: When provided with a new stimulus or a faced with a new situation, the learners base their responses on similar past stimulus experiences that resulted in satisfaction or annoyance. The learners try to recreate the responses that will lead to satisfaction thereby strengthening the S-R bond. Its similar to if A + B (situation 1) = C (satisfied response), then B + A (new situation) has to equal C (satisfied response).Law of Selectivity of Response: As a learner progresses with the learning process, they learn to "filter" a stimulus, responding to some aspects of the stimulus while ignoring some aspects. Therefore, a selective response to any given stimulus happens as learning occurs.Law of Spread Effect: If a learner associates a feeling of satisfaction after a S-R connection has been established, not only is the stimulus associated with satisfaction but even any other actions happening simultaneously with the presentation of this stimulus are associated with that satisfactory feeling. For example, listening to a particular song and eating a pastry leads to happiness.. (at least for me). Now, even listening to that song alone will lead to happiness…!

What are these educational theories and why do we need them?There are many educational theories we can follow in this instructional design field today. However, there are a couple of them that I would like to discuss with you in the coming posts. I find them relevant to my thinking. I would suggest that you read up on the ones that I do not discuss here, as each one of us should build their own reality. To begin with, these theories are the basis on which any instructional design model is constructed. The foundations of these designs lie in the concepts that are part of these theories. Therefore, a better understanding of these concepts will enable you to construct useful and efficient models. Then, as a designer there are times when you will need to justify why you have chosen a particular design. If you have a basic understanding of how these theories apply to your practical design choice, you will have a better chance of making your point and then, logically defending your design. Finally, in the entire gamut of educational educational theories, certain areas are more stressed upon than others. If you have an understanding of these theories, you will know why these areas have been highlighted and are more important than the others.The following is a roadmap of the theories that I will cover in the coming posts. There is a very good reading that will be my reference point, it’s a book called "Instructional Design" by Patricia L Smith and Tillman J Ragan. Do try reading it. Constructivism or Rationalism: Individual, Social, and ContextualismEmpiricism or ObjectivismPragmatismBehaviorismCognitive LearningInformation Processing TheoryCognitive Load TheoryInstructional Design TheoryMultiple Intelligences Theory ConstructivismConstructivism is part of another philosophy called rationalism. A rationalist philosophy believes that the primary source of knowledge is reason. Reason is the source from where knowledge arises. This knowledge is not transmitted but rather it is constructed. Knowledge helps build a reality for any situation therefore even reality is not discovered but is constructed. Now, where can such an approach be useful - where a learner has to "construct" his or her own reality and build knowledge from reason? To bring terms such as reality and reason into perspective, let’s consider a scenario where mechanics with an experience of N number of years on a particular car have to learn the latest software for repairing the car’s fuel-injecting system. The reality in this case is the new fuel-injection system and the reason (from where knowledge will arise) is the new training software. The question you need to ask is "do these experienced mechanics need an instructor to train them on using this software or are they capable of doing this on their own?" In other words, do the learners (mechanics) need an instructor to build their reality or not? The answer depends on which philosophy you follow - the radical or the moderate constructivist philosophy.The more radical constructivists would rather have the mechanics learn the software on their own - no help required in defining objectives or quantifying any learning outcomes. The mechanics or the learners are free to pursue this software training on their own accord.  Moderate constructivists would argue that a skeletal structure of objectives these learners need to cover and learning outcomes required should be defined. Some level of instructional design should help these experienced learners identify when and how knowledge blocks need to be built from reason and then use these blocks as per their own accord to construct their own reality. Constructivism, however, does not describe the cognitive processes that occur that facilitate learning.There are three types of constructivism:IndividualSocialContextualismI will begin with individual constructivism, then move onto social constructivism, and finally contextualism.Individual ConstructivismThis philosophy believes that experiences are the building blocks of knowledge that leads to learning.The premise of individual constructivism is:Knowledge is constructed from experience.In the realm of learning, meaning is developed on the basis of individual experiences.Learning is an active process.Interpretation of knowledge leads to learning.For a radical constructivist, every learner’s experience is individualized. Therefore, it is meaningless to create a specificset of instructions for a group of learners wherein each is building and learning basis his or her own experience. The best way would be to let them interpret the existing knowledge and construct their own knowledge that will lead to learning. Moderate constructivists would have a more liberal approach - they believe that not all responsibility of what all learning needs to happen should be on the learner. Rather a blended approach would be batter based on factor pertaining to the learner, tasks to be performed, and the context in which learning takes place. Now would be a good time to go back to the mechanics example I had given earlier and see it in the light of individual constructivism!

This was a concept that was expounded by post-revolutionary Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. As with individual constructivism, social constructivism also believes that a learner constructs his or her own reality, but now it’s a group of individuals who are working in collaboration to construct multiple realities. This is because learning is now a collaborative process and every learner is bringing his or her own perspective to this learning. Therefore, learning will have multiple perspectives. From a radical social constructivist point of view, all these multiple perspectives brought forward by the multiple learners in all subjects and in all social settings are equally viable and carry equal weight. Let us give this an instructional point of view. Consider a toddler classroom. There are blocks of the same color and size. Toddlers build or play with these blocks as per their fancy. Now, the blocks can be considered learning and what a toddler (learner) does with the blocks (learning) is based on the toddler’s perspective. The teacher cannot pick any single toddler’s work of art and hold it supreme. Every perspective for learning is correct and the truth however abstract (toddler's art of work!) carries equal weight. However, it is my belief that the radical point of view cannot be applied to all subjects. Moderate constructivists believe that in certain situations, some perspectives are more viable than the others. Multiple perspectives of multiple learners condense into a single perspective for "facts". One cannot dispute a fact, such as frogs breathe using their skin. The truth about facts is usually non-negotiable. In an instructional setting, it is very much possible and even encouraged to divide learners into groups to facilitate learning. Group learning is very effective in situations where multiple perspectives are required. Consider a group of instructional designer trainees evaluating the design of an e-learning website. Multiple perspectives of these IDs can be very helpful in identifying various areas where the website can be improved and where enhancements can be made. Such an exercise works upon the premise of social constructivism that individual learning occurs when learners are in a group. There is collaboration between learners and learning at all times with the learners negotiating their perspective of learning with other learners who are part of the same group. This concept of multiple perspectives for a particular learning can also be applied to individual constructivism where a single learner is negotiating her learning or understanding of knowledge to build her own reality. For example, consider a student taking an online course. There is no instructor present but knowledge is being assimilated by the student and is being negotiated at every step to build a reality or a perspective. By negotiation I do not imply alteration of the meaning of knowledge. I merely imply the method used to construct knowledge from the text/graphics on a page to allow learning to take place. Now, individual constructivism becomes part of or rather a subset of social constructivism.  To summarize this, collaborative learning in a given social setting can be very effective and efficient as an instructional design strategy.  I will come back to the works of Vgostsky later in the blog.

For any learning to take place, the learner should be able to connect to the setting in which learning is expected to happen. For example, if you want to teach a child how to ride a bicycle, you cannot show a simulation or a video tutorial. Instead, take her to an open ground and give a real tutorial-- give her a bike, teach her to sit on the seat, then tell her to hold the handles, place her feet on the pedals, and finally start peddling. You can provide assistance by allowing the bike to have training wheels or holding her so she does not fall off the bike. Now, let her pedal away to glory…(figuratively speaking of course!). In other words, the first precept that contextualists believe in is that learning and assessment should be part of a realistic setting. The second precept is that assessment should be integrated into the learning process and should not be an isolated activity. Learners can relate to tasks that need to be accomplished and then get a fair assessment of how well he or she did if the learning context is close to their real life environment. This type of learning that happens in realistic situations is called ‘authentic learning’ and the instructions associated to facilitate learning are called ‘anchored instructions’ (Cognition and Technology Group, 1990; Streibel 1995) as the instructions are anchored to the realistic situation. Another belief of the contextualists is regarding assessment or testing. Testing should not be oversimplified, even for novice learners. Else they will believe that the concept can only be applied to simplistic situations. Continuing with our bike example, if the child rides only on a leveled ground, she will believe that cycling can only be done if the ground is leveled and without any obstacles, such as stones. So, to test whether she has learnt how to ride, take her to an uphill trail. The uphill ride on a road full of little pebbles and stones will surly test her riding skills in addition to breaking the assumption that only leveled grounds are needed for riding the bike.However, as an instructor, you also need to be careful not to put the learners in difficult situations for assessment purposes before they have mastered the basic skills. By doing so, you risk them losing interest in the learning process entirely. For example, if you let the child start with riding in a difficult terrain, she might not want to ride at all…! Let the learners master some basic skills, test them on those skills, and then move towards more difficult and complex testing scenarios. This type of strategy ensures that learners retain interest in the learning process and construct their own reality from the little knowledge blocks that they are assimilating along the way.

Often termed as objectivism, reductionism, or associationism, the basic precept of empiricism is that knowledge is attained through experience. The reality constructed basis this knowledge is singular and objective, hence empiricism is also called objectivism. When termed as reductionism, empiricists are referring to the efforts required to reduce complex objects to their more simplified components. In this case, to gain any knowledge and to construct a reality about an object that is complex in nature, the object will have to be logically broken down into simpler components.  For example, to create a software program that tells you whether a number is odd, even, or prime, you will have to break this complex object (software program) into logically three components; input component (the number entered  by the user), the processing component (the logic that decides whether number is odd, even, or prime), and output component (the result). This results in knowledge being gained about this software program. When termed associationism, it refers to the predisposition to relate ideas if they are experienced alongside in either space or time continuum. The works of John Locke are important in the field of empiricism. His works on determining the limits of the human understanding has been well documented in his famous books, An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. In the four books comprising the Essay, he attempts to comprehend the source and understanding of human nature. In his first book, he suggests that the human mind is a tabula rasa, or blank slate. We do not possess any type of knowledge as we do not have any experience. It is as we grow older that experience "writes" on this "blank slate" and we gain some kind of knowledge. He writes that the inherent plans or schemes can be perceived under certain circumstances and till these arise, these plans are not perceived by the human mind. In his second book, he suggests that ideas are the building blocks of knowledge and all ideas arise from experience, therefore subtly implying that experience is from where knowledge arises. There are two kinds of experiences, sensation and reflection. Sensation perceives the objects and processes in our surroundings - the external environment. Reflection perceives the processes inside our creative faculties - the human mind. The human mind is a tabula rasa until experience (sensation or reflection) creates a simple idea that will construct complex knowledge. The mind can perform three types of actions on this simple idea. First, it can combine these simple ideas to form complex ideas (substances that have an independent existence, such as humans, birds, plants and modes that have a dependent existence, such as language of politics and culture).  Second, the mind can allow viewing of two ideas (simple or complex) simultaneously and without uniting them, giving rise to the concept of relations. Third, the mind can provide abstraction of ideas and thoughts by leaving out particulars leading to the concept of generalization.  Further, the mind has an area called memory that allows storing of these ideas. Therefore, the mind can be passive where it can only receive simple ideas from experience, or it can be active where it can combine simple ideas to form complex ones.These ideas be it simple or complex are the basis from where knowledge is constructed. The third book he links the abstract ideas and classification with language and its role in the construction of knowledge. Finally, his fourth book is a conclusion that describes the nature of knowledge, its limits, probability, and the relationship between faith and reason.

Pragmatism is a philosophical perspective that takes into account a practical consequence and then traces back the underlying theory that caused this consequence. This underlying theory is then modified or reinterpreted and applied back to the practical application. Therefore, a pragmatist will evaluate the theories or beliefs by taking into account the success of their practical application.In the work of two very influential pragmatists, Charles Sanders Peirce(1839-1914) and William James(1842-1910), the most famous application of the pragmatist’s belief was to the concept of truth. Pragmatists measure knowledge in a "truth for now" frame. The truth is valid only for a certain period of time till the underlying theory for this truth is modified and the new truth becomes the "truth for now". Now, pragmatism can be considered a form of radical empiricism because it rests on the tenet that knowledge is gained from experience. Let me explain this further. Every situation that we face helps us gain experience. On the basis of this experience, which is the practical application, we gain knowledge, which is the theory. When we are faced with the same situation again, we apply this knowledge or in other words, modify the theory and act accordingly. This way, we have applied the theory (knowledge) to create new practical consequences (experiences). Therefore, knowledge is being constructed using experience and is being applied back in the same situation to gain more experience. So, again the crux of this leads to the fact that knowledge and experience are the two important facets of learning.

I was reading up on some instructional theories and it was very interesting to see how these theories have influenced and shaped up the way we design and create instructional materials today. In this post, I will share with you my understanding of some of these theories. Just to lay out a road map for you, I will be discussing the following theories:The Information Processing Theory (G. Miller)The Cognitive Load Theory ( J. Sweller)Instructional Design Theory - Nine Events of Instruction (R. Gagné)Multiple Intelligence Theory (H. Gardner)The Information Processing TheoryAccording to this theory, learning is a series of transformations of information/knowledge as it moves through various structures/containers within the brain. As information passes through each individual container, it is transformed as per the container's specifications, and then passed on to the next container for further action.However, in reality, our brain does not have any physical containers of different shapes and sizes to transform information in a unique way. The Information Processing theory tries to understand how the brain interprets and makes sense of the information being sent to it. The Information Processing theory divides the section of the brain responsible for learning into six different containers.The seventh container is the environment, which is not part of the brain.The environment triggers the input-process-output cycle. Within the brain, each container receives information or input from the previous container. It transforms or processes this information as required and then sends this transformed information or output  to the next container. The final destination of this transformed information is the environment. These seven containers are:1. External Environment2. Sensory Receptors3. Sensory Registers4. Working Memory (STM)5. Long Term Memory (LTM)6. Response Generator7. EffectorsThe external environment (1) sends information in the form of small electrochemical packets to the sensory receptors (2), also called the senses. These packets are stored for a very short span in the sensory registers (3) (one-fourth of a second for visual images [Sperling, 1960], and a bit longer for auditory messages), then are sent to the STM (4).STM and LTM are used by the brain to store information for short-term and long-term respectively. You can think of the STM as the RAM of the brain. It stores information packets temporarily and then after a particular period of time, forgets them. Now, we wouldn't want that to happen, would we? To solve this dilemma of forgetfulness, the brain takes these information packets from the STM container (4) and puts them in the LTM container (5) where they are stored for a much longer duration of time. Further, only meaningful information will reach the LTM for storage. Once these packets have been stored in the LTM, they can be retrieved anytime and put back into the STM as per demand.This poses another question - which information packets should the brain accept and which ones should it discard as it is constantly being fed with so much information all the time? Our brain is equipped to handle this information overload using a process called selective perception. Selective perception is the process of filtering selective information packets from the barrage of continuous packets being received from the external environment. Selective perception ensures the information packets being received by the brain are desired and relevant.The response generator (6) retrieves the appropriate information packets (as per requirement) from the LTM (5) and sends them to the effectors(7), such as muscles, glands, or nerves to create the desired response. This response is finally sent back to the environment (1).The key point in the Information Processing theory is "only meaningful information is stored in the long-term memory". To store this information, the learner first should be able to make sense of this information. As an instructional designer, you have to ask yourself these questions:How much information can I provide the learner at any given time, that he/she understands and retains all of it?How does a learner store all the information that I provide in his/her brain? How can I design a course that will help learners achieve their desired outcome - total learning?How can I utilize the learner's individual learning style or intelligence to help him/her achieve the desired learning outcome?Answers to these questions will come in the form of more learning theories - in my next post: The power of four- Four Time-tested Theories. In this post, I will be covering the answers to these four questions:How much information can I provide the learner at any given time, that he/she understands and retains all of it? - Cognitive Load TheoryHow does a learner store all the information that I provide in his/her brain?  - Assimilation and Accommodation in Information Processing TheoryHow can I design a course that will help learners achieve their desired outcome - total learning? - Robert Gagné's Nine Events of InstructionHow can I utilize the learner's individual learning style or intelligence to help him/her achieve the desired learning outcome? - Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence Theory

IntroductionThis theory was proposed by John Sweller. Lets begin with a small exercise, (similar to the one illustrated by Mr Howard Soloman at http://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/cognitive-load.html).Take a look at the following for only three seconds and try to memorize them and then, write them down in the same sequence (now only 3s, nothing more.. ready..go!)UC L AF I UM B AP H DHow many of you were able to write it down - all of it? Now, let's try doing this exercise again, you will again have only three seconds to memorize and write them down:UCLA FIU MBA PHDYes, this time it was so easy, wasn't it.. or so it seemed. But look carefully at both strings of text, you see it? Yes, they are made up of the same alphabets. Only, the arrangement was different. Let's dig a bit deeper. In the first string, there are ten chunks of information while the second one only has four.This leads us to the first question that I discussed in my previous post: How much information can I provide the learner at any given time, that he/she understands and retains all of it? What is the Cognitive Load Theory?To answer this question, we have to understand the Cognitive Load theory. The Cognitive Load theory is based on the premise that the most efficient way for learning to happen is under conditions that are aligned with the human cognitive architecture. As per this theory, there are two important terms associated with learning - the cognitive load and the cognitive limit. The cognitive load is the amount of information a person is trying to process in the working memory at one time. The cognitive limit is the maximum number of chunks of information a person can process in the working memory at one time, which is 7 plus/minus 2 (maximum of nine and minimum of five). That's why you were able to remember the second string much more easily than the first one.Lets try to apply this in real-life ID. I was told that while creating a powerpoint presentation, "No more than eight words per sentence and no more than five bullet points per slide." Suddenly, this makes much more sense - we have to take into consideration the cognitive load and the cognitive limit of learners before dumping a truck load of information on them. We have to provide this information in smaller chunks (cognitive limit) for easier memorization and recall.But should this be the only criteria for us to use - breakdown larger chunks of information into smaller chunks of information, or is there something else?If we were to just follow this, our learners would have silos of information, which would be meaningless. Its like having a multi-storeyed building but no staircases or elevators connecting them. Each storey is the individual chunk of information but cannot communicate with the rest of the building. Now, lets go back to the exercise that we tried doing. Remember how those four chunks were easier to remember? Can you correlate the four chunks? If yes, then congrats! You have reached the next level of understanding how the brain works.The first two chunks are acronyms of universities, and the next two the programs they might provide. See how you were able to make sense of unrelated pieces of information. How did you do that? Well, this leads us to the second question that I discussed in my previous post: How does a learner store all the information that I provide in his/her brain?I will discuss this in my next post!

IntroductionTaking off from where I left in the previous post, we were asking ourselves, "how does a learner store all the information that I provide in his/her brain?"  Before we begin, here is a question for you - what is a Komondor? Hmm, before googling it, some of you might think it’s a bird or an airplane (pun intended) or something like that, right? Well, a Komondor is an exotic dog breed. Suddenly, now you know everything there is to know about a Komondor - it has four legs, has two ears, has a tail, is loyal, is playful, and is a dog. A second ago, you were thinking this is a fruit and now you know so much about this new entity. How did your brain manipulate this incoming new information? This process of acquiring knowledge (such as what is a Komondor?) through thought, experience, and senses (touching, seeing (reading text in our case), hearing, smelling, tasting) is called cognition.  What is a Schema?The Cognitive Load theory is based on the premise that the most efficient way for learning to happen is under conditions that are aligned with the human cognitive architecture. This architecture comprises the brain’s storage structures, also called a schema. A schema, by definition is a representation of a plan or design in the form of an outline or model. For the human cognitive architecture (STM and LTM), the schema will be a series of structures that are intricately interrelated, like a big supermarket with aisles and its various shelves. You can also think of the schema as the supermarket, with each information chunk with its own aisle, and various facets of that information given its own shelf space. And, your brain is the manager of this supermarket and knows exactly what goes where.Schemas are the cognitive structures that make up the knowledge base (Sweller, 1988). This knowledge base comprises the entire learning of a person. Schemas are the main reason why we learn. They are the information storage units of the brain. These storage units are the cognitive structures that comprise the knowledge base of a learner, which is ever changing. The knowledge base is the entire supermarket of your brain, which is accessed by you all the time, either to add information, to update information, or to delete information. Since these processes are continuous, therefore learning is continuous and the knowledge base is ever changing. Ever heard the old adage, ‘only change is constant’, - think about it. But how do schemas do that? They do this through assimilation and accommodation.What is Accommodation?When any new learning (knowledge/information/concept) is introduced to the learner, the cognitive processes of the brain modify the existing schema structure to "fit" this new learning. This process of modifying existing schema structures so that new learning can fit in them is called accommodation. Revisiting the supermarket again, if you were to introduce tinned produce, such as beans for the first time what would you do? You would build a new aisle to house this new line of products by shifting the existing aisles to make more room. Here, the brand new line of products (new information) will be accommodated by adding a new aisle to the existing aisles in the supermarket (modification of schema).What is Assimilation?However, if the learning introduced is reasonably familiar to the learner, these cognitive processes will simply "fit" this learning into the existing schema structures without any modification. This process of fitting new learning into existing structures is called assimilation. Continuing with the supermarket example, if you were to add a new product -sugar free chocolate cookies to the Cookies aisle, you will only have to create space for it on the existing shelves where the other types of cookies are placed. The sugar free cookies (new information) will be assimilated in the Cookies aisle (existing schema) simply by making space for it (no modification of schema). The concepts of assimilation and accommodation introduced by Miller in his Information Processing theory, and later on used by Sweller in his Cognitive Load theory.To assimilate or to accommodate?Now, a new question arises - how does the brain make a decision - accommodation or assimilation? Well, this is based on the precept that when new information is encountered, the brain takes a quick look at its schema structures to see if this new information has any links to the already existing knowledge base stored there. If the brain finds even a remote link to this new information, it will use the process of assimilation (add information as in into the structures), else it will use the process of accommodation (modify existing structures to fit in this new information). Did you know that a Komondor is a large Hungarian dog with a long, corded coat? Ah yes! But you already know that Komondor was a dog, right? So what did your brain do with this new information that I gave you? Your brain used the process of assimilation and fit this new information as is into your existing schema structure, hypothetically labeled ‘Dogs’. No modifications required here!But when you saw this for the first time, your brain could not link this new information "Komondor" to anything it already knew, as it was new. And when you were told that it was a dog, your brain used the process of accommodation and modified the hypothetical ‘Dogs’ schema structure to add this somewhat familiar entry into the a subset of the ‘Dog’ structure, labeled ‘Dog Breeds’. What is Disequilibrium and Equilibration?What happened to your brain the first time around was disequilibrium, which is a state of confusion encountered when the brain is unable to integrate new information into any existing schema structures. However, when you were given additional information about Komondor, your brain used the process of equilibration, which is the cognitive process within your brain that causes restructuring of information for assimilation or accommodation (in our case accommodation) caused disequilibrium.We cannot assimilate or accommodate all the time, otherwise we would never be able to retain any information as our brain structures would be in a constant state of flux - and nothing would be stable anymore. Therefore, the process of equilibration is used by the brain to restructure and control the processes of accommodation or assimilation. In my next post, I will continue with our next theory, Instructional Design Theory - Nine Events of Instruction (R. Gagné).

IntroductionIn my Learning Theories article, there was a particular question we were interested in - "how can I design a course that will help learners achieve their desired outcome - total learning?"  There are three parts to this question:What conditions should we provide to facilitate learning?How can learners achieve their desired learning outcome?What should be the actual design this course?All these questions can be answered by Robert Gagné's Instructional Design theory. He is known as the father of instructional design. His early works were influenced by the behavioristic theories and later by Miller's Information Processing theory. Gagné identified five different domains of learning along with the conditions that were required for learning to occur in those domains. Further, he also provided a solid framework for designing instructions by describing nine events to create those instructions. But before we begin with describing the various facets of this theory, we need to ask a question, "what is learning"?What is learning and learning outcome?As per Gagné, learning is a change in human capability that lasts for a particular duration of time. This change in capability is measured as the change in behavior of a learner. This reminds us of the behavioristic approach to learning - that learning has only happened if there is an observable change in behavior. Gagné further adds that to measure this observable change in behavior is by comparing the 'before learning' behavior of the learner with the 'after learning' behavior. If a significant observable change has happened, only then can you safely assume that learning has occurred. Gagné proposed that there were particular types of human behaviors that could be learned. These observable behaviors are called learning outcomes and a learning theory should be able to explain how these behaviors change ( in other words how did learning happen since there was an observable change in behavior). There are three elements comprising Gagné 's Conditions of Learning theory:Conditions of LearningClassification of Learning OutcomesNine Events of InstructionConditions of LearningThere are two types of conditions that are common to all the learning outcomes: external conditions and internal conditions.  External ConditionsThese are conditions that exist outside the learner. These conditions are the learning situation, the learning environment, and any external aids such as books, videos, or audio that an instructional designer or teacher uses to facilitate the learning process. The external conditions are different at every point in the learning cycle for the same learner. This is attributed to the fact the learning might begin at a different point each time and the external environment will usually be different for that point in time. Internal Conditions These are the inherent capabilities of a learner and are already present within him or her even before any external learning begins. These internal conditions are transformed and they cause a change in behavior of a learner. This change is observable and proves that learning has occurred. These learning outcomes or observable behaviors that change are influenced by both, external conditions and internal conditions. Gagné identified different domains of learning outcomes and therefore was able to provide insight into how an instructional designer can control the external conditions of learning to facilitate learning in the appropriate classification or domain.Classification of Learning OutcomesGagné identified five classifications or domains of learning outcomes:Intellectual SkillsVerbal Skills Motor SkillsAttitudesCognitive Strategies Gagné believed that the variables associated with the learning tasks within one domain may not influence the learning tasks within another domain. However, these variables can affect other learning tasks within the same domain. For example, any learning tasks within the intellectual skills domain, such as identifying a different shape from a group of similar shapes, can influence another learning task such as identifying a different color from a group of similar colors. But this learning task cannot affect another task, such as writing a name on a piece of paper using a pen, which falls within the motor skills domain. Intellectual Skills DomainThis domain is based on the concept of cumulative learning. It means that a learner needs to have some prior information or prerequisite knowledge about a topic before adding more onto this existing knowledge base. This construction process of building new knowledge blocks on top of existing knowledge base creates a learning hierarchy, which only exists within the intellectual domain. What is Prerequisite Knowledge?This comprises knowledge that a learner already possesses. It is the foundation used by the learner to build upon as new knowledge is assimilated or accommodated. This knowledge possessed by the learner is at an easier/lower level before the learner moves onto a more difficult/higher level of the same concept in the same domain. What is Learning Hierarchy?As I said previously, this hierarchy or levels of learning exist only within the intellectual skills domain. You can imagine this hierarchy as learning pyramid, with the simple skills forming the bottom layer, the prerequisites forming the middle layer, and the complex skills forming the top layer. To solve a problem, the learner should have first mastered a set of simple rules. These simple rules become the prerequisite knowledge a learner must possess. These prerequisites enable more knowledge blocks to be constructed on top of them,in this case comibing the simple rules to form complex rules. These complex rules will ultimately be used solve the problem. For example:Simple rule: if B= A + 5; then solve the problem: A+B = A+ (A+5) = 2A +5; Prerequisites: (A+B) = 2A + 5Complex rule: If A = C - 2, solve (A+B) - (B+2A) ;  You must solve B+2A = (A+5)+2A = 3A +5 , then solve the total equation (2A+5)- (3A +5) = 2A + 5 -3A - 5 = -A, and finally substitute the value of A in the final solution = -(C - 2) = 2+C, which is the final solution.The five sub-domains within the intellectual skills domain are:Problem Solving SkillsRule Learning SkillsDefined Concepts Concrete ConceptsDiscrimination SkillsProblem Solving SkillsA learner has to find a solution to a new problem - something that the learner is confronting for the first time. The learner has to decide which set of rules to use or which combination of rules to apply to generate a solution to the problem. For example, how to increase the work productivity by 10%. Rule Learning SkillsA learner has to apply a new rule, a formula, or a principle to solve a problem. For example, convert 10 degrees Celsius into Fahrenheit or find the speed of the train if it covers 100 miles in 30 minutes ( speed = distance /time).Defined ConceptsA learner has to group objects based on a particular rule. For example, identify all the countries that have the red color as part of their flag, or identify the objects that have four sides (triangles, octagons, hexagons, pentagons, rectangles, squares, and so on).Concrete ConceptsA learner has to group objects based on their physical characteristics. For example, group the elements from the periodic table that have a positive charge on them (Sodium, Calcium, Magnesium, and so on..) or arrange the toys according to their color.DiscriminationA learner has to identify the object that is different from the rest of the objects in that group. For example, identify the object that has four wheels from a group of automobiles (trains, buses, airplanes, wagons, cars, trucks, buses, and so on..)Remember, that the variables associated with the learning tasks within one domain can affect other learning tasks within the same domain. Verbal Skills DomainThis involves the learner stating the previously memorized knowledge, which includes facts, concepts, principles, and procedures. There are certain conditions that you can provide to the learner to enable mastery over the verbal skills:Provide a meaningful context: For example, to create a secondary color such as yellow, a learner needs to know about the primary colors (red, blue, green). After this context has been established, a learner can understand that primary colors can be combined to create newer colors,  and that combining red and green colors will create the yellow color. Provide an opportunity to practice the newly mastered skills: Continuing with the previous example, you can provide learners with the primary watercolors and ask them to mix up various combinations of primary colors to see what all 'new' secondary colors they can create.Stress relationships among the content to be learned: Using the previous example, you can tell the learners that primary colors can be combined to create newer secondary colors. Here, the keyword that stresses the relationship among the content (primary and secondary colors) to be learned is 'combined'. Provide additional practice over time: For the colors example that we have discussed, you can ask the learners to create more colors by combining primary as well as secondary colors and creating collages out of their 'newly' created color palate.Motor Skills DomainA learner has to execute body movements in a coordinated manner to accomplish a learning task. For example, to write a name in cursive handwriting using a pen, a learner has to learn to hold the pen, and then connect the individual alphabets to create a cursive hand, and know the spelling of the name that he/she will be writing. Other examples include swimming in a pool (use motor muscles of entire body) or playing a game of basketball (motor muscles of hands, arms, and legs).There are certain conditions that you can provide to the learner to enable mastery over the motor skills:Observe an expert at work: For example, in soccer to hit the ball with the feet, allow a learner to observe how a professional hits the ball to score a goal.Provide an opportunity to practice the skill: Continuing with the previous example, now allow the learner to hit the ball.Provide positive reinforcement or feedback on the performance and tips to improve the skill: Using the soccer example, you can provide a note of encouragement to the learner and then go ahead and provide some tips on how he/she can hit the ball better.Attitude DomainThis pertains to the choices a learner makes that defines his or her behavior towards a particular situation. These choices a learner makes are in response to a given situation. Therefore, to enable a learner to obtain 'master' over the skills in the attitude domain, you must help them gain control over their responses to the situation, as learners will seldom have control over the variables in a given situation. There are certain conditions that you can provide to the learner to enable control over their response in terms of attitude skills:Provide a role model to show the desired response to a given situation: For example, in a situation where another person (variable) disagrees with the learner's point of view, you can show a co-worker handling the situation in an amicable manner and avoiding a full blown confrontation rather than being disrespectful and causing a scene in the office. This will help the learner understand the desired behavior (resolve situation amicably) and will reinforce the desired result (avoid confrontation).Engage the learners to make the correct choices and then reinforce the decision by providing positive feedback: Continuing with the previous example, you can provide cues and hints to guide the learners towards the choosing the correct behaviour response. If they do this, you can provide a feedback that due to resolving the situation amicably, the learner has been promoted to a team-lead position. However, if the learner is unable to make the correct decision, you still have to provide a feedback that might tell them why the decision they made was incorrect. Mostly, the attitude domain is covered under the soft skills courses that organizations provide to their employees.Cognitive Strategy DomainThis involves engaging the learner in tasks that will help them control their thinking and learning processes. Have you heard of Lumosity, or any website like that? Well, Lumosity provide 'exercises for the brain' that look like games. In reality, these exercises stimulate different parts of the brain to increase their capacity and response times for any given situation. These exercises fall under the cognitive strategy domain. You can design similar activities for your learners that will engage their brains and modify their cognitive capabilities.There are certain conditions that you can provide to the learner to enable mastery over their cognitive faculties:Introduce new problems to stimulate the learner's cognitive processesAllow learners to monitor their cognitionAllow learners to observe the experts at workDespite whichever domain your learner may fall into, one thing remains constant - the learning outcomes that need to be learned. Each learning outcome can be defined using a set of learning objectives. These objectives are of two types: enabling objectives and terminal objectives.  The enabling objectives are the smaller individual tasks that a learner must complete that will culminate towards achieving the final task -  the terminal objective. A learner must complete the enabling objectives first and then will he/she able to reach the terminal objective. For example:Terminal Objective (TO): Use MS Word to save your workEnabling Objectives (EO): Open a new file in MS WordSave a file in MS WordA learner will have to accomplish the individual tasks of opening and saving a file (EOs) that will lead to him/her being able to use MS Word to save his/her work (TO).In my next post, I will continue with Gagné and his Nine Events of Instruction.

IntroductionI have already discussed two of the three elements comprising Gagné's theory - conditions of learning and domains of learning outcomes. Now, I will discuss the remaining third and probably the most important aspect of his theory - The Nine Events of Instruction. This will answer the third question about how should we design our instructions so that the learner achieves the desired learning goals.The nine events of instruction are:Gain attention of learnersInform learners about the objectivesStimulate recall of prior learning in learnersPresent the content to learnersProvide learning guidance to learnersElicit performance from learnersProvide feedback to learnersAssess performance of learnersEnhance retention and transfer of content to the job of learnersWe will begin with an example. I will be using this example side by side with the theoretical concepts to explain each of these nine events. I hope that this will help in providing a basic case study on how to design courses using this methodology. Please note that this case study is for a fictitious company. Nine Events of InstructionConsider this, Mary is an instructional designer with CompLanguages Inc,. She has been asked to create a course - Microsoft Silverlight for beginners. She is familiar with Gagne's work and now wants to use his theory to design this new course. Assuming that Mary has gathered all the necessary external information, such as books and articles describing Silverlight, she begins her work. Her first lesson is introducing her learners to the basics of Silverlight and creating a small application in Silverlight.1. Gain Attention of LearnersThis is the first and foremost thing to do. You can gain the attention of the learners by providing adequate stimulus. Mary shows the students an application built in Silverlight and informs them that they will be creating this application by the end of the lesson.2. Inform Learners About the ObjectivesThis is an important step as an instructional designer or teacher, you can lay a roadmap for your learners. The introduction of objectives also sets an expectation and the learners know exactly what they will be able to accomplish at the end of the learning session.Mary creates the following terminal objective for her learners:By the end of this lesson, you will be able to build and run a sample Silverlight application.  Now, she needs to create the enabling objectives that will allow the learners to achieve the stated terminal objective. These objectives can be as follows:Introducing MS SilverlightUsing the Silverlight interfaceIdentifying components of the Silverlight architectureBuilding a Silverlight applicationRunning a Silverlight applicationAs you can see, informing the learners about objective will let them know beforehand what all they can expect to cover in that session. 3. Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning in LearnersBy providing a stimulus to recall previously learnt information, the learner brings in previously stored information that is relevant to the current context from the long-term memory into the short-term or working memory. This causes the activation of the short-term memory.Mary runs a similar application to the one she showed in Step 1. She asks them if they can identify the functions and properties that enabled her to create this application. She then tells them that similar functions and properties are used in Silverlight to build applications. By doing this, she is causing the learners to bring into their short-term memory any previously learnt information about building similar applications, but by using a different software. 4. Present Content to LearnersThe content has to be chunked and  presented in a meaningful manner. This is because when any information is presented to the learner, the cognitive load theory kicks into action. By applying this theory and presenting information in a way that makes sense to the learner, you are able to stimulate information retention. This means that this information has a greater chance of being transferred from the short-term memory to the long-term memory. Mary now presents the content of the course as per the enabling objectives. She uses the strategy of first presenting a theoretical concept and then showing its practical application. In the process, she is also building the sample application that the learners were shown in Step 1. This way, she is accessing the intellectual skills domain of the learners, by building cumulative learning - moving from simple rules/concepts to difficult rules/concepts. This helps the learners understand one concept (small meaningful chunks of information - cognitive load) at a time. By introducing more complex concepts, she is building on their prerequisite knowledge.Now, you can see how the domains of learning , especially the intellectual skills domain comes into play. You can visit my previous blog, Conditions of Learning to refresh your knowledge.  5. Provide Learning Guidance to LearnersTo ensure that the content that has been presented to the learner will be stored in the long-term memory, it is important to provide additional aids, such as using text, video, audio, examples/non-examples, case-studies, graphical representations, mnemonics, and analogies. Some methods to provide learning guidance include the following:Making instructional support available, such as scaffolds (cues, hints, prompts) that can be removed after the learner has understood/learned the content/task.Using different strategies such as mnemonics, content mapping, role-playing, and visualizing throughout the course.Using examples to reinforce concepts learned and non-examples to understand what not to do.Using case studies for real-world applications, analogies for knowledge construction, visual images for visual association, and metaphors for supporting learning.Such aids help the learner to fit this 'new' knowledge into the existing schemas by the process of assimilation or accommodation. You can refer to my previous post, Schemas, Assimilation, and Accommodation for further information.Mary uses a sample case study to build her Silverlight application. She provides several examples and non-examples along the way to show how they can affect the final application - by displaying an incorrect application or not displaying anything at all. Further, she uses graphical representations to explain concepts like the architecture of Silverlight. 6. Elicit Performance From LearnersTo reinforce the concepts learned, the learner is asked to practice the new skill or apply the new concept learned. It is important to ensure that the learner has understood the concepts, else they need to make corrections. Repetition of a concept enables retention of that concept, in other words, repetition facilitates the movement of concepts from the short-term memory into the long-term memory. Certain strategies, such as activities based on concepts learned or recall strategies can be used to activate learner processing.Mary asks the learners to create a visual representation their understanding of Silverlight's architecture. She asks them to write code snippets similar to what they have been taught, but changes some of the parameters of the application. By doing this, she is reinforcing the concepts taught and providing a chance to rectify their mistakes(if any).7. Provide Feedback to LearnersThe learners are provided feedback on the questions they have been asked in Step 6.  Questionnaires or quizzes can be used to test the learners on the concepts, facts, principles, or procedures that have been taught. This step stresses that the teacher must provide immediate feedback to facilitate learning.There are four types of feedback options:Confirmatory Feedback: Informs the students that they did what was expected of them.Corrective and Remedial Feedback: Informs the students about the accuracy of their performance or feedback.Remedial Feedback: Guides the learners towards the path to the correct answer in form of cues and hints, but does not provide the correct answer.Informative Feedback: Provides information (new, different, additions, suggestions) to the student as per their response.Analytical Feedback: Provides students with suggestions, recommendations, and information to enable them rectify or correct their performance.These options can be used individually or combined to provide a more comprehensive feedback.Mary provides them with informative feedback on the theoretical question about visual representation of Silverlight architecture. She provides analytical feedback on the code snippet questions to enable them to understand why a particular function/parameter was used and how can they can be tweaked so as to optimize them. This enables the learners to understand why their response was correct/incorrect. 8. Assess Performance of LearnersThis is to test the understanding of the learners regarding the objectives (enabling, terminal) of the course. This step is to ensure that the instructional designer or teacher verifies if the learning outcomes or task assessments have been fully understood by the learners. Some of the methods used for testing are:Conducting a pre-test to verify mastery of prerequisites for the courseConducting a post-test to verify mastery of the content or skills taught in the courseEmbedding questions throughout the course and testing learners using oral questioning and/or quizzesIncluding objective-referenced questioning to test learners how well they have learned a topicMary has embedded small quizzes throughout her course to ensure that the learners have understood the topics that are being taught. She has also embedded code snippets and tests the learners on their ability to spot the incorrect parameter/function that is causing the incorrect output/result to be displayed.  Finally, she gives them an online test that encompasses the entire course.9. Enhance Retention and Transfer of Knowledge to the Job of LearnersFor a skill to become stored in the long-term memory and become useful to the learner, it is important that they are able to use these newly learned concepts and apply them in real-time. Practice enables the learners retain the newly acquired information, especially with verbal information, intellectual skills, and motor skills. The instructional designers can help internalize this knowledge by providing spaced reviews.Some of the methods to help learners internalize this newly learned knowledge are:Paraphrase contentUse metaphorsGenerate examplesCreate content maps or outlinesCreate job-aids, references, templates, or wizardsMary provides her learners with job-aids and content maps to ensure that they remember this information even after they have left the classroom. 

Introduction"An intelligence is the ability to solve problems, or to create products, that are valued withinone or more cultural settings." -- Howard E. Gardner, Frames of Mind (1983)There are many theories dealing with how learners learn, what cognitive processes they use, how instruction should be created, what conditions should be provided  to facilitate learning, and so on. All these theories apply to a single category of learners and there is no individually tailored method to cater to the varied learning styles of learners. This changed with Howard Gardner's Multiple Intelligence theory. "Human cognitive competence is better described in terms of a set of abilities, talents, or mental skills, which I call intelligence." -- Howard E. Gardner, Multiple Intelligences: New Horizons in Theory and Practice (2006)Gardner took into consideration the cognitive science (the study of the mind) and neuroscience(the study of brain). He believed that every person had an intelligence (mental skills, abilities, talents) but with varying degrees of development and multiple combinations. Therefore, every person/learner has a unique individual intelligence that defines his/her learning style and ability to respond to stimuluses in a unique manner.  Let's say, you are meeting with a couple of people for the first time. You introduce yourself, while trying to remember their names and faces simultaneously. Fast forward one week, you see this person and you are trying to remember where you met him - at the meeting of course! But what's his name? Chances are you might not remember that...not because you were not paying attention, but most likely because you belong to the 'Visual-Spatial' intelligence group, the ones who remember things like faces, images, graphics, and pictures more easily, than say names or telephone numbers of people. This theory stress the fact that educators and instructional designers must take into consideration the various types of intelligences have - and then design their instructional materials accordingly.  There are seven types of intelligences as per Gardner. Let's take a look at each one:Verbal-Linguistic IntelligenceVisual-Spatial IntelligenceLogical-Mathematical IntelligenceMusical-Rhythmic IntelligenceBodily-Kinesthetic IntelligenceInterpersonal IntelligenceIntrapersonal IntelligenceVerbal-Linguistic IntelligenceIf you fall under this type of intelligence, you most likely have very well developed verbal and auditory skills. You have a highly developed sensitivity to rhythm of words and sounds that those words make. You tend to accumulate knowledge using "language" as a vehicle - reading, writing, and speaking. You think in words, so to describe a picturesque valley or envision the rising sun over the horizon, will come naturally to you. You, like most people with this intelligence, are the ones usually playing scrabble, solving crossword puzzles, writing poetry or novels. You love to be part of discussions, debates, formal speaking, creative writing, assignments and comprehension activities. You are best taught by including 'words' and 'rhythm of words' that make connections in the materials being taught - therefore help you remember things  better. Visual-Spatial IntelligenceIf you fall under this type of intelligence, you think in terms of images, illustrations, graphics, pictures, shapes, designs, patterns, textures, and diagrams. For you, a picture is worth a thousand words. You have the ability to visualize any concept and remember it. You have interests in jigsaw puzzles, in reading maps, and in drawing. Designers and architects fall into this category - give the designer a blank room or give the architect a piece of land, and they can come up with the most amazing designs - on a piece of paper. They have an inherent sense of design and colors - what goes with what. You are best taught by including a great deal of pictorial information in the instructional materials. Logical-Mathematical IntelligenceIf you have this intelligence, you are good at reasoning and calculating. You have the ability to think in numbers and patterns. You have a knack to visualize things conceptually and abstractly. You can use numbers, math, and logic to identify patterns in real-life, which are often overlooked by others. You can identify visual patterns, numerical patterns, thought patterns, color patterns and so on and try to make sense out of it. For you, reasoning and logic are part of your inherent process of thinking - and you try to make sense out of everything in terms of these two characteristics.  You love solving complex problems and tend to be very systematic and organized. You have a logic explanation to everything you are doing at any time and often try to apply logic to every situation you come across. You enjoy experimenting things, solving puzzles, and debating philosophical questions. To learn anything, you faculty should present you an empty house (abstract concept), which you will fill later - with the details. You enjoy learning through use of games that involve logic and investigations. Musical-Rhythmic IntelligenceAs the name suggests, if you fall in this group, you love the sound of music and the vibration of rhythm. You are sensitive to various sounds and vibrations in your environment - and often react to what you 'hear'. Remember the friend with the ear-plugs on at nearly all times - well, that one was not listening to music all the time - rather was using music to concentrate on other tasks. Or that girl who could remember the entire song that she had heard, only once - well, this is their musical intelligence at play. You can work, study, and concentrate better with music in the background. You like creating music, mimicking different sounds, types of speech, and language accents. You can identify different instruments from a composition. You are best taught by including rhythms and sounds in the instructional materials. This includes using multimedia, CD-ROMs, musical instruments, radios, stereos among others.Bodily-Kinesthetic IntelligenceIf you have this intelligence, you have a heightened sense of awareness about your body. You are the 'learn by doing' types. You like to get involved in physical games, hands-on learning tasks, acting-out things, role-playing activities, dancing, and building things and inventing stuff with your hands.You often perform activities better after seeing someone else perform them first - remember the friend who could copy the precise dance movements of anyone on that TV show - well, that's a bodily-kinesthetic intelligence for you. You can be taught by getting involved in any type of physical activity, else you will get bored easily.Interpersonal IntelligenceYou are the 'go-to' people of a group - need advice, need help, need empathy - you fit the bill. You have a heightened sensitivity to the feelings of others and most of you learn by interacting with other people. You usually have a large group of friends and you tend to develop an empathy towards most people. You have very effective people and communication skills. You are proficient at bringing people out of their shells and getting them involved in discussions. You are skilled at conflict resolution and enabling people with radically opposing views reach a satisfying compromise. Your intelligence group can be called the peacemakers of the society. The best way to teach you is to get people involved somewhere down the line. Group activities, seminars, and dialogs are some modes that interest you as modes of learning. In addition, various media such as audio and video conferencing, individual one-on-one time, and telephonic conversations can also be used.Intrapersonal IntelligenceIf you have this type of intelligence, you have an ability that most people don't- self introspection and self-awareness. How many of us have ever wondered about our purpose on this planet, what we will accomplish in a lifetime (non-materialistic things), or how can we improve ourselves for the greater good? If you answered to any of these questions, you have an intrapersonal intelligence. You have the ability to introspect every situation that you are in, step aside and see it subjectively. Rather than looking outwards for solutions, people with your type of intelligence look inwards for the answers - introspective intelligence. They understand the inside world - emotion, self, values, beliefs, and the ever continuous adventure to attain perfection.  You tend shy away from people and tend to be loners. You are self-motivated, confident, strong-willed with an intuitive nature. You will enjoy learning if your learning materials allow you to introspect and to foster independence of thought.  Things that can help you learn are books, creative materials, and diaries, all of which will provide the privacy you need (shy nature) and provide an independent learning environment that is best suited for you.

This shoebox arrived in the post today. It is the creation of one of my technical colleagues. It contains everything needed to record video and audio that can be use as additional digital learning resources to accompany an e-textbook that we are working on. There is a compact video camera, audio recording gear, guerilla tripod, cables, instructions, and spare batteries - all in robust snap-lock boxes. The idea is that the shoebox will tour the colleges and the participants will self-record their contributions, which we will later edit and add the clips to a companion website to supplement the e-book. We are trying to streamline the recording process so that we can easily produce high-quality digital resources to augment text and other learning resources for a wide range of subjects. We will document the process so that others can learn from our experiences.

http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Athlete_at_starting_block.jpg It seems, therefore, that starting to study for a PhD is much like starting on any new job. On your first days at work you want to feel comfortable, both with your environment and your colleagues. The induction is simple, and after all, mainly common-sense. The student needs to know where to find things that are going to be useful, everything from the desk and chair where they are going to sit, to the facilities that they will be using - the tea-room, the toilets, the laboratory, the library, and so on. They also need to be introduced to the people they will be working with - their fellow postgraduates, the academic staff, the support staff, and most of all, their supervisors. This is going to be the case whether the student has newly arrived at the university or has already studied there as an undergraduate for several years. In the latter case, the evolution from undergraduate to postgraduate might be deceptive, because although there might already be an established familiarity between the students and staff, this relationship will necessarily be subtly changed. When a postgraduate student embarks upon a PhD they are normally treated as an honorary, if temporary, member of staff. They will have more generous permissions for library and IT services than they had as an undergraduate, they might be encouraged, or even expected, to acquire a teaching commitment in the department, and they will certainly be expected to hold there own in academic discussions when their subject area comes up. In all of these changing circumstances, the supervisor has a mentoring and advisory role for the student, and this relationship needs to be established at the outset. Although the precise topic of the PhD study may have been decided by the supervisor, who has raised the money to support a students, then interviewed and appointed a likely candidate, the fact is that from the moment of embarking, the research topic is owned by the student, not the supervisor. The student must go from a standing start to becoming a recognised expert in this area of research, and this can only be achieved if the student makes the subject their own. The role of the supervisors is to help the student to develop the skills to complete the task. Obviously, the supervisors have a vested interest in the student reaching a successful outcome, but this stops short of actually doing the work for them. The distinction is that the supervisors have already won their own PhD, it is up to the student to rise to the occasion and prove their own abilities. To start with, this is hard. Possibly the student is over-awed by the reputation of the supervisors or by the academic language that is used to phrase the nature of the challenge. Conversely, they might initially think that this is a continuation of their undergraduate work and that they just need to turn up in class often enough and take good notes in order to pass. Traditionally, PhD students have normally been based on the same campus as the main supervisor, although second and third supervisors might be located on a different campus, or even a different university. Increasingly, however, the use of digital communications, the internet, online library resources, and more flexible ways of work and study, have liberated the PhD study out of the cloisters and into the digital world of distributed education. There are a lot of tools and techniques to encourage and support the tuition of PhD research at a distance, and I would like to draw attention to these over the next few weeks as I ruminate over the experience of the PhD student and the role of the PhD supervisor in a digital environment. Like all tools and techniques, the suggestions made are just suggestions, there is no compulsion to rush out and adopt them uncritically. In addition, the usual caveat applies when discussing digital resources, in that this is a very fast-changing subject area, so software applications and services rise in popularity and disappear without trace; they are improved, superseded, and adapted to suit other purposes. So, much like the PhD process itself, their use is a voyage of discovery and transformation that leads to new ways of thinking about old problems.

Increasingly, services which we used to consider could only be delivered face-to-face, are being offered through online media. Supervision of research students is no exception to this trend, and although there is a belief among some supervisors that the PhD student needs to be "just along the corridor" from the supervisors, really this is more for the comfort of the supervisor than the student! In fact, with some aspects of the work of post graduate research students, there is an argument that the student can get more attention, and perhaps better attention, by combining face-to-face with online opportunities. In my work, a recurrent question is, "How can I do this activity with a student who is at a distance"? In some cases it might simply be making use of video-conferencing software, such as Skype, to have an in-depth discussion; in other instances the student can be referred to a host of useful online resources to enhance their skills and knowledge. In my experience, almost every instance of thinking through the issue of how a face-to-face educational experience can be moved (at least partially) online, means that the re-thinking process strengthens the pedagogy and the educational rationale. In part, this may be because we are fundamentally re-thinking about what is really essential in the educational activity itself (as opposed to how the ‘lesson’ we deliver has evolved away from what we initially started with). On the other hand, experience tells us that there is more than one way of learning/teaching a subject, so adding various online educational resources might be considered simply extending the tool-kit that we have at our disposal, and that we are prepared to share with the student. A helpful online resource when getting started on a PhD is http://www.findaphd.com as this combines a number of useful resources and networks. Obviously, it can be used to find a PhD position which the prospective student might apply for, but it goes way beyond this. Details of funding opportunities and different types of PhD offers can be viewed and compared. There are sections on the "nuts and bolts" of what constitutes a PhD, as well as advice on how to cope with the most common difficulties, or suggestions of help from a variety of sources - including other PhD students. An interested surfer can browse through the PhD opportunities that are currently on offer, compare the details, and even contact the proposed supervisors in a variety of countries for more information on their research proposal. Most importantly, the surfer can access this information at their own convenience rather than travelling for an hour to ask a question that requires a three-minute answer. For these reasons, I make a point of investigating new online opportunities for each teaching and research activity that crosses my path.

I appeared on Fred MacAulay’s programme on BBC Radio Scotland yesterday, talking about online education. The clip is at the end of this piece if you want to listen to it. (It only lasts ten minutes or so). As is often the case with TV and radio media, the content tends to be fairly superficial and fast-changing in order to appeal to the widest range of listeners, but the advantage is that there are a LOT of listeners! In a way, it is interesting how the comments on "degrees by post" or "get a degree without getting out of your pajamas" has given way to a serious radio discussion among a whole range of other items which are simply taken as ‘part of life’.http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b052my7v

1.1 The suitability of the research student What sort of person makes the best PhD student? What characteristics and attributes should a supervisor look for? Fortunately there is no blueprint. Each and every student is different, but there are some common attributes. Obviously, every supervisor hopes for the perfect student, who will be meticulous, self-motivated, well-disciplined, and a competent all-rounder! The reality is that most students who make it as far as being registered for a research degree will have all of these attributes in some measure. Their levels of competence and performance will vary throughout their period of study, and part of the job of a supervisor is to moderate, encourage, and develop these competencies, and perhaps to add a few more skills as the need occurs. The journey of the PhD research student is essentially and fundamentally a voyage of transformation of the student. The person who successfully completes a PhD is really a different person from the one who began; more confident, more skilled, more competent, with a fundamentally changed outlook on their own professional abilities. In the old days, it was felt that the only way the student could acquire this change of state was for the student to inhabit the same environment as the professor. Not in the same room, of course, but certainly living within shouting distance. What really intrigues me in contemporary academia, is the ability to utilise a wide range of digital technology to narrow the conceptual distance between a supervisor on campus, and a research student at a distance. We frequently take for granted the diversity and sophistication of the digital technology within our easy reach. From ‘simple’ e-mail and Skype, to more complex social media and file-sharing protocols, there is a range of digital tools that, while they have not been specifically designed for academics, are amply suited, with perhaps minor adaptations, to the intimate world of research student supervision. Traditionally, one, or perhaps two, academics would get together to think about a burning research question that interested them. They would seek funding to cover the costs of employing a student, meet the need of associated costs such as tuition fees, library and IT resources, possibly field work, and so on. Then they would advertise, interview, and appoint a research student, who would come to work full-time under their instruction, usually for around three years, until the student completed writing up and defending a research thesis that (usually) supported and was an extension of the life-work of the main supervisor. This is still a common model, but fortunately the flexibility and innovation that has evolved at all levels of progressive education, has resulted in a wide range of new study options. It is increasingly frequent for research students to be self-funded, and studying part-time. These students will normally be working - fees and other bills have to be paid - and they may also have family responsibilities - the care of young children or elderly parents - that would make full-time study impossible. On the other hand, what they lose from the energy and momentum of working full-time on an absorbing research project can be made up for by increased time-span for reading, cogitation, and gathering data.

There are two key considerations that apply to any student, whatever their mode of study, and it is imperative that the supervisory team make these clear from the outset. Firstly, it needs to be understood and emphasised, by both student and staff, that the research project belongs to the student; only s/he can make a success of this. The supervisors should provide initial direction, and will offer constant advice and reinforcement throughout the period of study, but the important decisions - for better or worse - need to be made by the student. It is the student who will need to advocate and defend the thesis, and who will reap the rewards. Secondly, the supervisors need to provide for an appropriate induction for the new student as soon as they start working. No matter how smart and self-confident a new student might be, it is wrong to assume that s/he will just "pick things up" as they go along. Whether it is the simple matter of making introductions to co-workers, or the more complex business of learning specific research methods and IT technical skills, a common-sense approach dictates that the supervisors should assume a zero baseline of experience until proven otherwise. Research has clearly shown the benefits of a good induction for students starting on undergraduate courses, and it makes no sense to assume that it would be otherwise for postgraduate research students. In fact, it is very likely that the research students will soon begin to overtake the supervisors, both in the details of their specific research methodology and also, going on current trends, in their adoption and use of new digital applications such as social media services. For these reasons, it makes sense to have an online, or at least a digital, version of the skill-set and supporting resources that will be issued to research students at their induction. No matter how good your memory is, or how copious your note-taking, there are a lot of new things to remember and the new research student is unlikely to remember them all accurately. Nor do the need to. An online repository of relevant information, either on the institutional intranet, or on the open internet, immediately allows users different levels of access. Slow learners can re-read and re-visit the information at a later date; all learners can visit the information for revision, or when the need-to-know becomes necessary; and fast learners can delve into layers of additional information - the extras that are nice-to-know in greater depth than can normally be covered in tutorial sessions. Another important point in favour of compiling a suite of resources online is that the very act of being required to think through all the possible situations and resources that might be needed by the research students tends to mean that a comprehensive resource can be built up. The need to prepare in advance for an asynchronous reader at a geographically distant location, rather than photocopying last minute, ad hoc guidance to be handed out in a classroom, generally results in a better designed set of resources. Of course, an additional beauty is that these resources can be updated easily and that they are available 24-7, unlike any supervisor that I know!

In the course of a normal year, I frequently help to organise an introductory training sessions for new research students and for lecturers who are just starting out to supervise research students for a PhD. Naturally, one of the issues that we address is to consider what makes a good supervisor. This is both very simple and quite intangible. The simple version is that the good supervisor guides, advises, and supports the research student through the entire process - from the first tentative steps, to the final success at the viva and subsequent graduation. This seems rather obvious, and it is fair to ask for a more detailed breakdown of the roles of a research supervisor, and this is where it gets a bit more complex. Firstly, there are two main roles for a supervisor - the Director of Studies, and the Second (or Third) supervisor. Let’s deal with the main supervisor first. The Director of Studies (or lead supervisor) is normally the most senior of the supervisors, though this is not always the case. As the main supervisor, s/he will be responsible for the week-by-week guidance of the research student, although the frequency and extent of contact-time will vary widely for different students and subject areas. This supervisor will be the main link between the student and university administration, possibly a Graduate School or similar management section. There will be regular progress monitoring reports to complete (perhaps six-monthly), and these will normally be based upon regular formal meetings with the student to discuss the progress of the research. In addition, there will probably be lots of intervening meetings, of both short and long duration, as the supervisor responds to questions from the student, suggest tasks to perform, or recommends reading to enhance some area of knowledge that the student might benefit from. Some of these meetings might be quick, ad hoc conversations in the corridor or the café, while others will be formal reviews between the student and the whole supervisory team. Normally the only professional requirements are that a) the supervisor has a PhD already; b) that they have some area of expertise in the subject area that they are proposing to supervise; and c) that they are attached to an academic institution. Frequently, the main supervisor is required by the university to have successfully supervised at least two PhD students to completion, usually undertaken in the more junior position of Second or Third supervisor, but this is not always the case. In certain circumstances, a non-academic expert may also be appointed as an Advisor, rather than a Supervisor, if this person has some relevant specialist skills or knowledge, for instance an important industrial contact. Like all walks of life, some Directors of Study are more diligent than others, and have greater or lesser social skills and leadership qualities, but basically they all have a vested interest in assisting the student to complete their PhD. Usually the supervisors share a common enthusiasm for the research topic with the student, and helps to co-create the voyage of discovery. Even with the best supervisor, it would be foolish to expect them to know the answer to everything, but hopefully their level of experience should be able to suggest a logical way to discover these answers. I like to give detailed (line by line) feedback on the first pieces of academic writing from the student, so that some guidance on the style of academic writing, the level of detail, and the quality of the text can be established, but some supervisors may take a less hands-on approach. My role is to help the student to understand and deal with the academic challenge that they face during the research project, but it is to guide and offer advice on how they might tackle these challenges, to provide some scaffolding, not to do the work for them.

Taking day-long hikes into an exquisite national park like Desolation Wilderness, west of Lake Tahoe, provides a wonderful metaphor for learning: just when we think we’ve reached a destination we have established for ourselves—a summit, a pristine lake, or a meadow—we realize there are even more to pursue. Which is exactly how several of us are feeling in #etmooc, the Educational Technology and Media massive open online course (MOOC) that Alec Couros and others are currently offering through March 2013. Nearing the end of a two-week exploration of digital literacy that was initiated by Doug Belshaw’s introductory session on the theme, our entire #etmooc learning experience is both extending all around us rhizomatically and circling back in upon itself. When we think about some of the #etmooc themes—the idea that learners in this sort of (connectivist) MOOC set our own goals within the broad framework established, and that there is no pressure around keeping up or falling behind since we each approach the course with a desire and ability to set our own learning goals and learning pace—we gain a visceral appreciation for and understanding of what a well-run MOOC can offer. And we have to ask ourselves a simple question: how do those concepts play into the challenge of defining and nurturing digital literacy? When, for example, we find ourselves starting with what appears to be a basic course text—Belshaw’s What is ‘digital literacy’?—and then, through our own learning hikes, locating other texts that can be equally engaging, attractive, and important in helping us shape ideas of what digital literacy means to us, we come to the realization that we’re using digital literacy skills we may not have previously considered. This, of course, can’t help but shape our own attempts to define and nurture digital literacy. Two of those digital learning texts came my way this week through digital connections. The first, Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century (2009), caught my attention when a colleague (Cleveland Public Library learning strategist Buffy Hamilton) mentioned it in her Goodreads account. The second, the New Media Consortium’s online publication A Global Imperative: The Report of the 21st Century Summit (2005), came my way directly from the first in that it was mentioned in Confronting the Challenges. Henry Jenkins and his co-writers, in Confronting the Challenges, engage us in a book-length exploration regarding "core social skills and cultural competencies" for anyone interested in being "full, active, creative, and ethical participants in this emerging participatory culture." The book (available free online as well as in a printed edition) is well worth reading for its concise descriptions of those skills; for the examples provided at the end of each section; and for the summary of those elements on pages 105-106: play, performance, simulation, appropriation, multitasking, distributed cognition, collective intelligence, judgment, transmedia navigation, networking, and negotiation. More importantly, the writers conclude the book with a reminder of why digital literacy is important: to "ensure that all students benefit from learning in ways that allow them to participate fully in public, community, [creative,] and economic life…" The same concern drives the New Media Consortium report. The first few pages remind us that 21st-century literacy is "multimodal,…includes creative fluency as well as interpretive facility,…means learning a new grammar with its own rules of construction,…lends itself to interactive communication,…implies the ability to use media to evoke emotional responses,…[and] has the potential to transform the way we learn." A call to action on page 19 of the report provides one possible road map that, through its proposals, helps us focus on the digital literacy skills we might want to foster. A striking element of Confronting the Challenges and A Global Imperative is that both works focus on the need to promote digital literacy among our youngest learners. There’s no reason to limit our attention to that audience, however; it’s clear that older learners have as strong a need for digital literacy—however we define it—as those younger learners have. If we expand our thinking a bit and apply the same needs for digital literacy to learners of all ages, we stand a good chance of fostering the sort of digital citizenship that is going to be a topic of discussion during the final weeks of #etmooc. Which brings us back to the #etmooc challenge of defining, understanding, and, by extension, fostering digital literacy: if we want to understand the theme, we need to take a hike. And expect to keep going long beyond the destination we originally intended to reach. N.B.: This is the thirteenth in a series of posts responding to the assignments and explorations fostered through #etmooc.

If we want to learn at a deeply significant and long-lasting level, we clearly need to keep re-walking familiar paths while remembering, each time we recreate those journeys, to look at them as if we’ve never seen them before this moment. This becomes more obvious than ever to me earlier today when I have an unexpected opportunity to re-view EDUCAUSE Director Malcolm Brown’s stimulating "Ideas That Matter" presentation from the New Media Consortium Horizon Project Summit on the Future of Education held in Austin, Texas in January 2013. I enjoy the presentation when Brown originally delivers it. I take notes that I reread with fresh eyes a few days later. But it isn’t until I watch the newly-posted video of that discussion of the creative process needed to address wicked problems—those complex and ambiguous problems requiring innovative approaches—that I see how much my perspective on the topic has evolved over the period of a single month. What makes the viewing of that video transformative is that it places me, in a very visceral way, in two distinct yet interwoven moments and frames of mind. The original moment, environment, and frame of mind is the one created by the act of being part of a summit where all attention is focused on a single, spectacular theme—the future of education. The contemporary moment is the one that is here and now, just one month later, when I continue to be part of a group absolutely transformed by participation in #etmooc, the Educational Technology and Media massive open online course (MOOC) that Alec Couros and others are currently offering through March 2013. Brown, like Couros and his associates (his "co-conspirators"), lays the foundations for explorations without establishing a clear vision of the outcome. We know we’re going somewhere, we know it’s going to be a journey well worth taking, and we know we’re going to experience unexpected pleasures along the way, but we have no idea what the destination is until we help create it through our own participation. It’s a learning process, and the most successful learning processes are those that the learners themselves—ourselves—help define, create, and complete. We allow for successes far greater and more significant than we can envision at the beginning of the learning process; we create an expectation and acceptance of the possibility and likelihood of failures along the way; and we create the most wonderfully odd juxtapositions that in and of themselves serve as the sandboxes capable of producing results worth seeking. Brown, at a key point in his presentation, draws our attention to John Cleese’s lecture on creativity—a spectacularly entertaining and thought-provoking presentation that was originally delivered in 1991, yet continues popping up via online links with great regularity and proving itself to be as timely today as it was more than two decades ago. Being onsite with Brown means that we experience Cleese second-hand; watching the video of Brown’s presentation provides the invitation (consider it a command performance) to take the time to actually relive Cleese’s lecture in the moment, in juxtaposition with what Brown is offering. And we’re all the richer for this opportunity to re-walk both those paths again as frequently as we allow ourselves to be drawn to them, just as we’re able to re-walk some of the paths we’re creating, visiting, and revisiting through the various platforms that #etmooc uses (Blackboard Collaborate presentations; blog postings; live tweet chat sessions; postings in a Google+ community; and a variety of other settings limited only by our own imaginations and the amount of time we have to give to our continuing education efforts in a vibrant community of learning). But let’s stay with a key point that Brown makes by quoting from Cleese’s earlier yet virtually contemporaneous presentation: creativity "is not a talent; it is a way of operating." Every time we creatively pull ourselves back into an inspiring learning moment by re-reading our notes, or re-viewing an online presentation, or re-reading a blog posting (and, perhaps, adding to what is already there by posting a new comment that draws the original blogger back to what he or she wrote days/weeks/months/years ago), we keep our learning moments alive, productive, and fertile. Jumping from Brown to Cleese also takes us deeper into that fabulously Cleesian world where he begins by telling his audience (which, thanks to the video, now includes us in the sort of wonderfully synchronously asynchronous moment that I’m attempting to create with this article) that he can more easily explain humor than he can explain the creative process. Then proceeds to do both by talking about creativity while continually interrupting his own presentation with a seemingly endless string of light bulb jokes. Then finds a way to connect the learning dots by helping us understand how the juxtaposition of seemingly unrelated ideas (like creativity and light bulb jokes) can move our minds from a comfortably closed state (that is antithetical to creativity) to one open to unexpected possibilities (which provides a field where seeds of creativity can sprout, grow, and thrive). He makes us laugh repeatedly by reminding us how important these absurd juxtapositions are, and then producing more of them to prove the point. By the time we leave Cleese and Brown, we have strengthened our ability to engage in the process—and even make sense of the sort of juxtapositions I calculatingly create in the headline to this article. N.B.: This is the fourteenth in a series of posts responding to the assignments and explorations fostered through #etmooc.